Sequence of transmission. Efficient coding of information on the hour of transmission by communication channels. Step-by-step characterization of protein biosynthesis

Spadkova information - all information about budova protein (information about those in what order decrease during the synthesis of the primary structure of the protein).

Information about the life of the protein is encoded in DNA, so that in eukaryotes it enters to the chromosome warehouse and is located in the nucleus. A DNA cell (chromosomes), in which information about one protein is encoded, is called gene.

Transcription- ce rewriting information from DNA to iRNA (informative RNA). iRNA to carry information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, to the site of protein synthesis (to the ribosome).

Broadcast- The process of protein biosynthesis. In the middle of the ribosomes to the codons of the iRNA, following the principle of complementarity, the anticodons of the tRNA are added. The ribosome is a peptide link between itself amino acids, bringing tRNA, proteins are released.

Transcription reactions, translations, as well as replication (DNA subfamily) reactions matrix synthesis. DNA serves as a template for iRNA synthesis, while iRNA serves as a template for protein synthesis.

genetic code- tse way, for the help of some kind of information about the life of the protein, DNA was recorded.

power of the genecode

1) triplets: one amino acid is encoded by three nucleotides. qi 3 nucleotides in DNA are called triplet, iRNA - codon, in tRNA - anticodon

2) Overworld(virogenity): there are 20 amino acids in total, and triplets that encode amino acids - 61, so skin amino acids are encoded by the number of triplets.

3) Unambiguity: skin triplet (codon) codes for more than one amino acid.

4) Universality: the genetic code of the same for all living organisms on Earth

manager

Specification for the number of nucleotides/amino acids
3 nucleotides = 1 triplet = 1 amino acid = 1 tRNA

Head of the ATGC
DNA iRNA tRNA
A U A
T A U
GCH
C G C

Choose one, the most correct option. iRNA in copy
1) one gene chi group of genes
2) lances of the protein molecule
3) one protein molecule
4) parts of the plasma membrane

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. The primary structure of the protein molecule, given by the sequence of nucleotides in iRNA, is formed during the process
1) broadcasts
2) transcriptions
3) reduplication
4) denaturation

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. Yaka sledovnіst correctly in vіbrazhaє ways to implement genetic information
1) gene -> iRNA -> protein -> character
2) sign -> protein -> iRNA -> gene -> DNA
3) iRNA -> gene -> protein -> character
4) gene -> DNA -> character -> protein

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. Choose the correct sequence of transfer in the process of protein synthesis in cells
1) DNA -> informational RNA -> protein
2) DNA -> transport RNA -> protein
3) ribosomal RNA -> transfer RNA -> protein
4) ribosomal RNA -> DNA -> transfer RNA -> protein

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. One and the same amino acid shows CAA anticodon on transport RNA and triplet on DNA
1) CAA
2) TSUU
3) GTT
4) YES

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. AAU anticodon on transport RNA shows a triplet on DNA
1) TTA
2) AAT
3) AAA
4) TTT

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. Skin amino acid in clitin is encoded
1) one DNA molecule
2) a lot of triplets
3) dekilcoma genes
4) one nucleotide

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. Functional unit of the genetic code
1) nucleotide
2) triplet
3) amino acid
4) tRNA

Vidpovid

Choose three options. After reactions of the matrix type, molecules are synthesized
1) polysaccharides
2) DNA
3) monosaccharides
4) iRNA
5) lipid
6) white

Vidpovid

1. Choose the sequence of processes to ensure protein biosynthesis. Write down the exact sequence of numbers.
1) fusion of peptide bonds between amino acids
2) joining the anticodon of tRNA to the complementary codon of iRNA
3) synthesis of iRNA molecules on DNA
4) translocation of iRNA in the cytoplasm and distribution on ribosomes
5) delivery for help of tRNA amino acids to the ribosome

Vidpovid

2. Set the sequence of processes in protein biosynthesis in clitin. Write down the exact sequence of numbers.
1) fusion of the peptide bond between amino acids
2) interaction between the iRNA codon and the tRNA anticodon
3) exit of tRNA from the ribosome
4) fusion of mRNA with ribosome
5) exit of iRNA from the nucleus into the cytoplasm
6) iRNA synthesis

Vidpovid

3. Set the sequence of processes in protein biosynthesis. Write down the exact sequence of numbers.
1) synthesis of iRNA on DNA
2) delivery of amino acids to the ribosome
3) fusion of the peptide bond between amino acids
4) addition of amino acids to tRNA
5) fusion of iRNA with two subunits of the ribosome

Vidpovid

4. Set the sequence of steps in protein biosynthesis. Write down the exact sequence of numbers.
1) removal of a protein molecule from a ribosome
2) adding tRNA to the start codon
3) transcription
4) lowering the polypeptide lanciug
5) exit of mRNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm

Vidpovid

5. Set the correct sequence of processes for protein biosynthesis. Write down the exact sequence of numbers.
1) addition of amino acids to the peptide
2) synthesis of iRNA on DNA
3) recognition by codon to anticodon
4) combining mRNA from the ribosome
5) release of iRNA from the cytoplasm

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. Which anticodon of transport RNA matches the TGA triplet in the DNA molecule
1) ACU
2) ZUG
3) UGA
4) ADA

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. The genetic code is universal, oskilki
1) skin amino acid is encoded by a trinity of nucleotides
2) amino acid sites in the protein molecule signify different triplets
3) in the only living earth of the Earth
4) sprat of triplets encode one amino acid

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. A piece of DNA that can retrieve information about one polypeptide lance is called
1) chromosome
2) triplet
3) genome
4) code

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. Broadcasting is the whole process, for which
1) the number of strands of DNA is conquered
2) iRNA is synthesized on the DNA template
3) ribosomes synthesize proteins on the mRNA template
4) open water bonds between DNA molecules

Vidpovid

Choose three options. Biosynthesis of protein, on the basis of photosynthesis
1) in chloroplasts
2) in mitochondria
3) in plastic exchange reactions
4) in reactions of the matrix type
5) in lysosomes
6) in leukoplasts

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. Molecule serves as a matrix for translation
1) tRNA
2) DNA
3) rRNA
4) iRNA

Vidpovid

All marks below, except for two, can be used to describe the functions of nucleic acids in clitin. Designate two signs that “fall out” from the list, then write down the numbers in the table, under which stinks are indicated.
1) improve homeostasis
2) transfer decay information from the nucleus to the ribosome
3) take part in the biosynthesis of protein
4) enter to the warehouse of the cell membrane
5) transport amino acids

Vidpovid

AMINO ACIDS - CODONI ІRNA
How many codons in iRNA encode information about 20 amino acids? At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

AMINO ACIDS - NUCLEOTIDES iRNA
1. The division of a polypeptide consists of 28 excess amino acids. Determine the number of nucleotides in the division of the iRNA in order to obtain information about the primary structure of the protein.

Vidpovid

2. How many nucleotides can replace mRNA, so that the synthesis for this protein is made up of 180 amino acid residues? At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

3. How many nucleotides can be replaced by mRNA, such that the synthesis of this protein is made up of 250 amino acid residues? At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

4. The protein is made up of 220 amino acid strips (reserves). Set the number of nucleotides in the cell of the iRNA molecule that encodes the protein. At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

AMINO ACIDS - DNA NUCLEOTIDES
1. The protein is made up of 140 amino acid residues. How many nucleotides in the gene extension, in which the primary structure of this protein is encoded?

Vidpovid

2. The protein is made up of 180 amino acid residues. Numbers of nucleotides in the gene, in which the sequence of amino acids in this protein is encoded. At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

3. A fragment of a DNA molecule encodes 36 amino acids. How many nucleotides can replace each fragment of the DNA molecule? At the correct date, write the correct number.

Vidpovid

4. The polypeptide is composed of 20 amino acid strips. Depending on the number of nucleotides on the gene extension, they encode the number of amino acids in the polypeptide. Vidpovіd write down the numbers.

Vidpovid

5. How many nucleotides in a gene division encode a protein fragment from 25 amino acid residues? Write down at the end of the day less than the last number.

Vidpovid

6. How many nucleotides in the DNA template lancet fragment encode 55 amino acids in the polypeptide fragment? At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

AMINO ACIDS - tRNA
1. How many tRNAs took part in the synthesis of a protein, which includes 130 amino acids? At the correct date, write the correct number.

Vidpovid

2. A fragment of a protein molecule consists of 25 amino acids. How many tRNA molecules took part in yoga creation? At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

3. How many molecules of transport RNAs took part in translation, how can a gene carrier avenge 300 nucleotide spares? At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

4. The protein is made up of 220 amino acid strips (reserves). Set the number of tRNA molecules required for the transfer of amino acids to the stage of protein synthesis. At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

AMINO ACIDS - TRIPLETS
1. How many triplets can a fragment of a DNA molecule code for 36 amino acids? At the correct date, write the correct number.

Vidpovid

2. How many triplets encode 32 amino acids? Write down at the end of the day less than the last number.

Vidpovid

NUCLEOTIDES - AMINO ACIDS
1. How many amino acids are encoded in the gene extension, what should 129 nucleotide overflows cover?

Vidpovid

2. How many amino acids code for 900 nucleotides? Write down at the end of the day less than the last number.

Vidpovid

3. What is the number of amino acids in a protein, how does one coding gene consist of 600 nucleotides? Write down at the end of the day less than the last number.

Vidpovid

4. How many amino acids encode 1203 nucleotides? Please write down more than the number of amino acids.

Vidpovid

5. How many amino acids are necessary for the synthesis of a polypeptide, since one part of the iRNA, which encodes, is 108 nucleotides long? At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

NUCLEOTIDE iRNA - NUCLEOTIDE DNA
In the synthesis of the protein, the iRNA molecule takes part, a fragment that contains 33 nucleotide excesses. Determine the number of nucleotide surpluses in the division of the DNA template lancet.

Vidpovid

NUCLEOTIDE - tRNA
How many transport RNA molecules took part in translation, how can a gene carrier avenge 930 nucleotide spares?

Vidpovid

TRIPLETS - NUCLEOTIDE ІRNA
How many nucleotides in a fragment of an iRNA molecule, such as a fragment of the DNA encoding lancet, can take 130 triplets? At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

tRNA - AMINO ACIDS
Determine the number of amino acids in the protein, so 150 t-RNA molecules took part in the translation process. At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

SIMPLY
How many nucleotides make up one codon of iRNA?

Vidpovid

How many nucleotides make up one stop codon of iRNA?

Vidpovid

How many nucleotides make up the tRNA anticodon?

Vidpovid

FOLDING
The protein has a permissible molecular weight of 6000. The number of amino acids in a protein molecule depends on the permissive molecular weight of one amino acid excess of 120.

Vidpovid

Two lances of a DNA molecule have 3000 nucleotides. Information about the structure of the protein is encoded in one language. Change the number of amino acids encoded on one line of DNA. For more information, write down less than the exact number of amino acids.

Vidpovid

In the process of translation of a molecule to the hormone oxytocin, 9 tRNA molecules took part. Determine the number of amino acids that enter the protein warehouse, that are synthesized, as well as the number of triplets and nucleotides that encode this protein. Write down the numbers in the order specified in the order, without extensions (clearings, room, etc.).

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. One and the same amino acid shows UCA anticodon on transfer RNA and gene triplet on DNA
1) GTA
2) ACA
3) TGT
4) TCA

Vidpovid

Choose one, the most correct option. Synthesis of hemoglobin in clitin control
1) codon
2) triplet
3) genetic code
4) genome

Vidpovid

Which of the listed organoids in cells have reactions of matrix synthesis? Choose three vernacular statements from the list and write down the numbers that indicate the stench.
1) centrioles
2) lysosomes
3) Golgi apparatus
4) ribosomes
5) mitochondria
6) chloroplasts

Vidpovid

Take a look at the little ones from the images of the processes that take place at the client, and tell A) I will name the process, marked with the letter A; B) I will name the process marked by the letter B; C) name the type of chemical reactions. For skin letters, remove the appropriate term from the requested list.
1) replication
2) transcription
3) broadcast
4) denaturation
5) exothermic reactions
6) substitution reactions
7) reactions of matrix synthesis
8) splitting reactions

Vidpovid

Take a look at the little ones and say (A) I will name the process 1, (B) I will name the process 2, (c) the end product of the process 2.
1) tRNA
2) polypeptide
3) ribosome
4) replication
5) broadcast
6) conjugation
7) ATP
8) transcription

Vidpovid

1. Set the consistency between the processes and stages of protein synthesis: 1) transcription; 2) broadcast. Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) amino acid transfer of t-RNA
B) take the fate of DNA
C) ta-RNA synthesis
D) molding of the polypeptide lanciug
D) binds to ribosomes

Vidpovid

2. Set the difference between characteristics and processes: 1) transcription; 2) broadcast. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the order that you give to the letters.
A) three types of RNA are synthesized
B) look for help ribosome
C) the peptide bond is established between monomers
D) in eukaryotes, they are found in the nucleus
E) how the matrix is ​​vicorated by DNA
E) is produced by the enzyme RNA polymerase

Vidpovid

Set the difference between characteristics and types of matrix reactions: 1) replication; 2) transcription; 3) broadcast. Write down the numbers 1-3 in the order that matches the letters.
a) Reactions take place on ribosomes.
B) RNA serve as a template.
C) a biopolymer is established to avenge nucleotides with thymine.
D) Synthesis of the polymer against deoxyribose.
E) The polypeptide is synthesized.
f) RNA molecules are synthesized.

Vidpovid

All signs lowered below, two crimson, are victorious for the description of the image depicted on the little process. Designate two signs that “fall out” from the list, then write down the numbers that indicate the stench.
1) according to the principle of complementarity, the sequence of nucleotides of a DNA molecule is transformed into a sequence of nucleotides of molecules of different types of RNA.
2) the process of converting the sequence of nucleotides from the sequence of amino acids
3) the process of transferring genetic information from the nucleus to the stage of protein synthesis
4) the process occurs in ribosomes
5) the result of the process - RNA synthesis

Vidpovid

The molecular weight of the polypeptide becomes 30,000 c.u. Set the length of the gene that encodes, as the molecular weight of one amino acid in the average to 100, and the difference between nucleotides in DNA becomes 0.34 nm. At the end of the day, write down more than the last number.

Vidpovid

Select from the list below the reactions of two, which are the reactions of matrix synthesis. Write down the numbers, under which the stench is indicated.
1) cellulose synthesis
2) ATP synthesis
3) protein biosynthesis
4) oxidation of glucose
5) DNA replication

Vidpovid

Choose three choices out of six and write down the numbers in the table, for which the stench is indicated. Before matrix reactions in clitiny
1) DNA replication
2) water photolysis
3) RNA synthesis
4) chemosynthesis
5) protein biosynthesis
6) ATP synthesis

Vidpovid

All signs below, except for two, can be used to describe the biosynthesis of protein in clitin. Designate two signs that “fall out” from the list, then write down the numbers, according to which stinks are indicated.
1) The process is dependent on the presence of enzymes.
2) The central role of the process belongs to RNA molecules.
3) The process is accompanied by the synthesis of ATP.
4) Monomers for the resolution of molecules - amino acids.
5) Folding of protein molecules occurs in lysosomes.

Vidpovid

Find three pardons from the hovered text. Indicate the numbers of propositions, in which the stench is broken.(1) During the biosynthesis of a protein, reactions of matrix synthesis occur. (2) No more replication and transcription reactions before matrix synthesis reactions. (3) As a result of transcription, iRNA is synthesized, the template for which is the entire DNA molecule. (4) Passing through the pores of the nucleus, iRNA is found in the cytoplasm. (5) Messenger RNA takes part in the synthesis of tRNA. (6) The transfer RNA ensures the delivery of amino acids for protein collection. (7) The energy of ATP molecules is used for the production of dermal amino acids and tRNA.

Vidpovid

The mustaches are listed below the understanding, the cream of the two, are vindicated for the description of the broadcast. Designate two signs that “fall out” from the list, then write down the numbers that indicate the stench.
1) matrix synthesis
2) mitotic spindle
3) polysome
4) peptide link
5) essential fatty acids

Vidpovid

All signs below, two or three, vicorist to describe the processes necessary for the synthesis of the polypeptide lanciug. Designate two signs that “fall out” from the list, then write down the numbers that indicate the stench.
1) transcription of messenger RNA in the nucleus
2) transport of amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome
3) DNA replication
4) approved pyruvic acid
5) adding amino acids

Vidpovid

© D.V. Pozdnyakov, 2009-2019

(Vіdpovіdі naprikіntsi test)

A1. What is the science of classifying organisms on the basis of their sporidness?

1) ecology

2) taxonomy

3) morphology

4) paleontology

A2. What theory was formulated by German scientists M. Schleiden and T. Schwan?

1) evolution

2) chromosome

3) clitinnu

4) ontogeny

A3. Let's store in carbohydrates in the creature's clitinum

1) starch

2) glycogen

4) cellulose

A4. How many chromosomes in the state clitins of the fruit fly Drosophila, so that in її somatic clitins there are 8 chromosomes?

A5. Wake up your own nucleic acid the DNA of the clitin-lord has a

1) bacteriophages

2) chemotrophy

3) autotrophy

4) cyanobacteria

A6. The state of reproduction of organisms is evolutionarily progressive, shards of it

1) spread them to a wide width in nature

2) ensure the swede of increased numbers

3) with the appearance of great diversity of genotypes

4) preserve the genetic stability of the species

A7. How to name special features that establish one variety of gametes and do not give a split sign offspring?

1) mutant

2) heterosis

3) heterozygous

4) homozygous

A8. How are the genotypes of individuals indicated in dihybrid crossbreeding?

A9. All the leaves of the same growth may have the same genotype, but they can vary according to

1) the number of chromosomes

2) phenotype

3) gene pool

4) genetic code

A10. What kind of bacteria can improve nitrogen life of roslin?

1) wandering

2) bulbous

3) oxo-oxide

A11. Underground vtecha vіdznyaєtsya vіd root nayavnіstyu in new

2) zone growth

3) sudin

A12. Roslini vіddіlu pokrytonasіn, vіdmіnu vіd holonasіnіh,

1) wash root, stem, leaf

2) make a ticket and a plaid

3) multiply now

4) see the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis

A13. At the birds, at the sight of the plazunov,

1) unsteady body temperature

2) covering from the horn

3) constant body temperature

4) egg reproduction

A14. How can a group of fabrics be powerful, alert and short-tempered?

1) m'yazova

2) epithelial

3) nervous

4) happy

A15. The main function of nirok in savtsiv and people is to be removed from the body

2) zayvogo tsukru

3) products of speech exchange

4) unverified excesses

A16. Phagocytes of people in the building

1) bury foreign bodies

2) vibrate hemoglobin

3) take the fate of the throated blood

4) transfer antigens

A17. Bundles of long-standing neurons, covered with a happy tissue membrane and folded in the posture of the central nervous system,

2) cerebellum

3) spinal cord

4) bark of great pivkul

A18. What kind of vitamin should be included in the diet of a person so as not to fall ill with scurvy?

A19. To what criterion should one consider the area of ​​the widened tundra of a deer deer?

1) environmentally friendly

2) genetic

3) morphological

4) geographical

A20. The butt of the interspecies struggle for the foundation and the blue of the mizh

1) a grown-up toad and a button head

2) a broomstick cabbage and її caterpillar

3) sleepy thrush and humpback thrush

4) forks alone win

A21. Yarusne roztashuvannya roslin at foxi

1) crosscut

2) zahist in the wind

3) the energy of light

4) change in viparovuvannya vodi

A22. Which of the factors in the evolution of people has a social nature?

1) articulate language

2) sluggishness

3) natural breath

4) recession

A23. What is the nature of mutual organisms different types, yakі require the same grub resources?

1) hut - a victim

3) competition

4) mutual assistance

A24. In the biogeocenosis of jellied onion, it can be reduced to reducers

1) cereals, sedges

2) bacteria and fungi

3) mouse-like rodents

4) roslinoid coma

A25. Before global changes the biosphere can bring

1) increase in the number of four species

2) deserting territories

3) fall of bright fall

4) change of one bed or another

A26. What number of nucleotides from cytosine can avenge DNA, so that a fraction of adenine nucleotides becomes 10% of the total number?

A27. Choose the correct sequence of transfer in the process of protein synthesis in cells.

1) DNA → messenger RNA → protein

2) DNA → transfer RNA → protein

3) ribosomal RNA → transfer RNA → protein

4) ribosomal RNA → DNA → transfer RNA → protein

A28. With a dihybrid crossing and an independent inherited trait in fathers with the AABb and aabb genotypes, the offspring are prone to splitting in spiving

A29. In the selection of roslin, pure lines win a path

1) crosscut

2) self-cutting

3) experimental mutagenesis

4) interspecific hybridization

A30. Plasuniv vvazhat with right terrestrial ridge creatures, stink shards

1) breathe atmospheric sour

2) breed on land

3) lay eggs

4) wash your lungs

A31. Carbohydrates in the human body are stored in the reserve

1) liver and meat

2) podshkirnіy klitkovinі

3) pidshlunkov_y zaloz

4) intestinal walls

A32. Vіdіlennya sleigh, which is to blame for teasing receptors in oral emptying, tse reflex

1) intelligence

2) crazy, which is transmitted from recessions

3) what is a wink for the life of people and creatures

4) individual for skin people

A33. The middle of aiming butts with aromorphosis є

1) the flat shape of the body at the skhilu

2) a spade at the conic

3) chotyric chamber heart in birds

A34. Biosphere - open ecosystem, shards of won

1) is formed from impersonal diverse ecosystems

2) is affected by the influx of the anthropogenic factor

3) includes all spheres of the earth

4) constantly victorious sony energy

Vіdpovіddu till zavdan tsієї part (В1-В8) є sequence of letters or digits.

For tasks B1–B3, choose three correct answers out of six, write down the selected numbers in the table.

1. Biological significance of meiosis

1) loss of a double number of chromosomes in a new generation

2) enlightenment of human and female gametes

3) established somatic cells

4) the creation of possibilities for the creation of new genetic combinations

5) increase in the number of clitin in the body

6) a multiple of the increase in the set of chromosomes

Q 2. What is the role of the slugs in people?

1) taking part in immune reactions

2) fix blood cells

3) є zamіshanoї secretion

4) satisfy hormones

5) see live

6) see herbal enzymes

U 3. Before the evolution factors

1) crossing over

2) mutation process

3) modification

4) isolation

5) different views

6) natural breath

On the eve of the vikonannya zavdan B4-B6, set the duty between the first and the other stovptsiv. Write in the table the numbers of the selected responses.

В 4. Set the vіdpovіdnіst mіzh a sign of growth and vіddіl, for which wines are characteristic.

В 5. To establish the viability of a person's brain function and its function.

О 6. Set the difference between the nature of the mutation and the species.

Under the hour of vikonannya B7–B8 set the correct sequence of biological processes, manifestations, practical activities. Write in the table the letters of the selected statements.

O 7. Set the sequence of processes that are carried out in the interphase cell.

A) iRNA is synthesized on one of the DNA lances

B) the DNA molecule splits into two lances under the influx of enzymes

C) mRNA moves to the cytoplasm

D) on iRNA, which serves as a template, protein synthesis is performed

About 8. To establish, at the same chronological sequence on the Earth, the main groups of roslin appeared.

a) green algae
B) horsetail
B) nasіnєvi ferns
D) rіnіofіti
D) golonasinnі

Life is the process of making protein molecules. The very same way about her, there are a lot of vchenih, like a reconciliation, that white is the basis of all living things. These judgments are absolutely correct, because these speeches have the most basic functions. Other organic substances play the role of energy substrates, and energy is again needed for the synthesis of protein molecules.

Step-by-step characterization of protein biosynthesis

The structure of the protein is encoded in nucleoside or RNA in the form of codons. Tse spadkova information, as it should be done, if the client needs a new white speech. The beginning of biosynthesis in the nucleus requires synthesizing a new protein with already given powers.

The nucleus of the nucleic acid is despiralized, and its structure is decoded. This place is duplicated by messenger RNA and is transferred to ribosomes. The stench is suggested for the presence of the polypeptide lancet on the matrix support - messenger RNA. Briefly, all stages of biosynthesis are presented in the following order:

• transcription (the stage of substitution of DNA from the encoded structure of the protein);
• processing (stage of development of informational RNA);
• translation (synthesis of proteins in clitins on the base of messenger RNA);
• post-translational modification ("maturation" of the polypeptide, formation of its bulk structure).

Transcription of nucleic acid

All the synthesis of proteins in clitinum is carried out by ribosomes, and information about molecules is stored in nucleic or DNA. Vaughn in the genes: the skin gene is a chain protein. The genes contain information about the amino acid sequence of the new protein. In Vipadu s DNA, the genetic code is deciphered in the following way:

• stop the cessation of the dilyanka of nucleic acid and histones; despiralization is expected;
• DNA polymerase subdivides the DNA, decapitates the protein gene;
• subwoofer is a carrier of messenger RNA, which is processed by enzymes for removal of non-coding inserts (iRNA synthesis is carried out on this base).

From messenger RNA, mRNA synthesis is involved. It is already a matrix, hence the synthesis of proteins in clitinum is carried out on ribosomes (in the short endoplasmic reticulum).

Ribosomal protein synthesis

Informational RNA may have two endings, so they are made out like 3`-5`. Reading that synthesis of proteins on ribosomes starts from 5'kintsya and trivay to intron - dilyanki, as it does not code for amino acids. It looks like this:

• messenger RNA "strings" onto the ribosome, which adds the first amino acid;
• the ribosome moves for the messenger RNA with one codon;
• transport RNA needs (encoded by the cym codon of iRNA) alpha-amino acid;
• the amino acid joins to the starting amino acid to form the dipeptide;
• Then the mRNA is again shifted by one codon, an alpha-amino acid is added, and the peptide is extended to a growing lancet.

As soon as the ribosome reaches the intron (non-coding insert), the messenger RNA just sticks out. Then, in the world, the informational RNA is pushed out, the ribosome is once again reaching the exon - the litter, the nucleotide sequence of which is the same as the singing amino acid.

On the third month, the arrival of monomers of protein to the lancelet begins again. The process continues until the appearance of a black intron or to a stop codon. The rest is the synthesis of the polypeptide lancelet, in which case it is important to complete and begin the post-synthetic (post-translational) modification of the molecule.

Post-translational modification

After translation, the synthesis of proteins occurs in smooth cisterns. In some clitins, the stench can flare up but are daily in the REM. Such dilyanki are needed for enlightening the back of the second, then already tertiary or, as it is programmed, quarter structure.

The entire synthesis of proteins in clitinum depends on the great amount of ATP energy. Therefore, all other biological processes are necessary to support protein biosynthesis. Until then, a part of the energy is necessary for the transfer of proteins from cells by active transport.

A lot of whites are transferred from one location of the cell to another for modification. Zocrema post-translational synthesis of proteins occurs in the Golgi complex, where the polypeptide of the song structure is connected to the carbohydrate or lipid domain.

In order to better understand the process of exchange of information and understand its effectiveness, the next step is to understand the elements and stages of the communication process.

Communication process

You can see the information exchange process some basic elements(Figure 1.4):

• chief executive - a person who generates ideas or collects and transmits information;
• reminder - Vlasne іnformatsіya, encoded for additional symbols;
• channel - Zasіb transmission of information;
• oberzhuvach - a person who is recognized as information that interprets it.

Rice. 1.4.

Sub hour to exchange information chief executive і oberzhuvach go through a spate of mutually dependent stages. Chief Executive Officer- fold the notes and twist the channel for this transmission in such a way that the offending parties understand and share the idea. It’s foldable, because at the skin stage, sensory support can be done, or else it’s been spent.

At the process of the flow of information, it is necessary to push through, but we will come stages:

• the birth of an idea;
• coding and choosing a channel;
• broadcast;
• decoding;
• Zvorotniy zv'yazyok.

Let's take a look at the stages of the communication process in order to show how problems can be at different points (Fig. 1.5).

1. The birth of an idea. The exchange of information is based on the formulation of ideas and selection of information. To whom the clerk is wrong, to the very idea of ​​chi podomlennya following the object of exchange. This role is played by the transmission and coding of information with further transmission to other participants in the process.

It is even more important to correctly and resolutely formulate your idea, so that it will become a cicada and a privilege for an obsessive. It is important to remember that the idea has not yet been transformed into words and has not taken on another form, in which it will serve to exchange information. Vidpravnik virishiv less, sho same Vіn you want to transfer.

2. Encoding that select channel. Before him, as to convey the idea, the clerk is guilty of coding for additional symbols. For example, you can victorious as a symbol of the word, intonation and gesture (mova body). Such coding transforms the idea into reminder.

The chief executive is also guilty of vibrati channel, sum of character types, vikoristanih for coding. To some foreign channels one can see: the transfer of movies, letters, electronic communications, including computer media and electronic mail, video lines and videoconferencing. As the channel is not suitable for the physical insertion of symbols, transmission is impossible. If the channel does not need to provide ideas, the exchange of information will be ineffective.

The next thing to remember is that the choice of the reminder is not guilty of interfacing with a single channel. It is often necessary to win two or more contributions to communication with the singer. At zv'yazku z tsim process oskladnyuєєє, oskіlki vіdpravnik brought to install the sequence of vikoristannya tsikh zabіv and vyznachit hourly intervals for transmission of information. Prote it is important that one hour you win the exchange by us, and the written information sounds more effective, the lower exchange is only written. Наприклад, якщо на зборах начальників відділів, начальник фінансового відділу має пропозиції щодо спрощення взаєморозрахунків, ефективніше буде їх подати письмово у вигляді роздавального матеріалу, на екрані або фліп-чарті у вигляді графіків, схем, або відеороликів, супроводжуючи їх демонстрацію усними коментарями. In case of greater ymovirnist, that the information will be received, first, positively, in a different way, more (or in the maximum obsya), thirdly, the favor of those propositions of the affected colleagues will be promptly insured.

• 3. Broadcast. At the third stage, I will control the Vikoristov channel for delivering information (encoded idea of ​​the totality of ideas). Here we can talk about the physical transfer of information, like a lot of people pardon and take for the communication process itself. At that very hour, the transmission is one of the most important stages, which you need to go through in order to convey the idea to another individual.
• 4. Decoding. After the overpowering of the supervisor, the master decodes yoga. Decoding- tse translation of the symbols of the leader of the duma of the possessor. As if the symbols, chosen by the ruler, may have the same meaning for the obsession, remain known, that the very same maw on the vіdravnik, if the same idea was formulated. As soon as the reaction to the idea is not necessary, the process of exchanging for what is completed.
• 5. Zvorotniy zv'yazyok. The exchange of information can be done effectively, as if having demonstrated a clear idea through a return link. For example, zrobiv dії, on yakі chekav vіd nіgo vіdpravnik.

Irrespective of the simplicity of the communication process, wines rarely flow without reshuffle. Іsnuє impersonal potential shifts, yakі zavazhayut effective communications. Officials who destroy the purity of the transmission of information are usually called "noise" in the communication process.

"Noise"- tse be a factor that destroys the clarity of the transmission of the message, be it mitigation of the process of communication.

Dzherela noise varies in the form of folding or inaccuracies of the message to the minds of people, how to take it off, through which the sensation can be changed in the processes of coding and decoding. For example, to talk about noise, if the code is badly encoded (the writing is unclear) or the decoding is bad (not understandable), or if the communication channels are not effective (respect is obedient to be informed). A change can also be recognized in the organizational status between a kerivnik and support, which facilitates the accurate transmission of information.

In this rank, noise, but its essence is a barrier to the process of communication.

Singing noise at the process of communication is a constant, that skin stage of the process of exchange of information is supposed to create a sensation. If you want to make noise high, you can remember the loss of the sensation of the message and bring about the blocking of the information exchange.

Rice. 1.5.

in such a manner, communication process- Tse sledovnіst dіy when spіlkuvanny people. The goal of the communication process- Safeguarding of information, which is the subject of exchange. Communication process may singing elements and step by step. On the skin stage, you can blame "noise" (changes in communications), which building significantly reduces its effectiveness.

As it was appointed more, the main meta communication is the exchange of various information. Skin acceptance is permeated with a network of information channels, which are recognized for selection, analysis and systematization. With this ker_vnik, you can choose the most suitable ones for the new channel, linking with the other ker_vniks and the right ones. For example, you can discuss the problem in a special office or by phone; it is allowed to give information to the practitioners by writing a note on the sheet, or put the note on the blank board. A specific channel is rich in why it is determined by the nature of the support (Fig. 1.6).

Communication channels are classified according to their bandwidth.

The capacity of the channel is the total amount of information that can be transmitted through a new one in one communicative episode.

In general, communication becomes the most effective when using all impersonal channels like letters and oral ones.

Inject into the capacity of communication channels three trading posts:

• zdatnіst obroblyat kіlka signalіv one hour;
• the possibility of securing a swedish, double-sided zvorotny zv'yazku;
• zdatnіst zabezpechuvat osobisty pіdkhіd to kommunіkatsiy.

With a look at these possibilities, the best way special speculation. It only guarantees direct transmission, transmission of multiple information signals, negain Zvorotniy zv'azok that specialty pіdhіd.

Calling on the phone otherwise, for the help of other electronic resources, I will speed up the process of communication, however, there is no “presence effect” for the new one.

Personal Letters of notice - Notes, sheets, respect - the mother can also be especially direct, but the stench can convey only words written on paper and cannot secure a swedish return call.

Bezosobovi kommunikativni channels – bulletins, standard computer calls – є most important, їх throughput capacity surrounded by the greatest world.

In essence, the effectiveness of the communication method depends on how many wines are suitable for information, how it is necessary to transfer it. Zocrema, studies have shown that in quiet situations, if the information is ambiguous (that will require roses' clarification), make sure the communication is more effective, lower letters. The prote letter form of the transmission of the message, if the information is obvious, is simple and straightforward. For example, brought to the hands of workers by workers, informing them about the adoption of decisions, or fixed in a letter form of attained earlier homework.

We should be respectful to some kind of attitude, not only food, but to choose the form of communication, but to win correctly. At the table 1.1 fawn over from victoria of traditional means of communication.

• Div: Daft R. l. Leadership lessons.
• Div: Daft R. l. Leadership lessons.
• Greenberg J., Byron R. Organizational behavior: from theory to practice. M., 2004. S. 441.

The transfer of information is like a dzherel to the possession (acceptance) of information. Dzherelom information can be everything that is necessary: ​​be it an object that is a manifestation of living or inanimate nature. The process of transferring information flows into the actual material medium, which distributes the dzherel that possession of information, as it is called channel transmission of information. Information is transmitted through the channel in the form of a sequence of signals, symbols, signs that are called reminder. Oberzhuvach information - the object, which accepts information, after which it is observed singing change yoga stan. Everything said above is schematically depicted as a little one.

Transfer of information

People take away information from the mind, from what I see, from the sight of the organs of sensitivity: hearing, sight, smell, dotik, relish. The greatest amount of information received by a person is taken through hearing and speech. By ear, sound messages are received - acoustic signals in the middle of the middle (mostly - at the outside). The mirror receives light signals to transfer images of objects.

Not every information is informative for people. For example, to remind my unreasonable wish and being passed on to people, but not to avenge information for her and I can’t call for adequate changes.

An information channel can either mother nature (atmospheric wind, sound whistles are carried through, sleepy light, watch out for warning objects), or we will create piece by piece. In the rest of the day, go about the technical stuff.

Technical systems of transmission of information

The telegraph became the first technical means of transmission to the country, having been found in 1837 by the American Samuel Morse. In 1876, the American A. Bell found a telephone. From the view of the German physicist Heinrich Hertz of electromagnetic hvil (1886), A.S. Let's popovym in Russia 1895 rock and May at the same time with him 1896 rock G. Marconi in Italy, the radio was found. Television and the Internet appeared in the XX century.

Must be repaid technical background informational call based on transmission to a physical (electrical or electromagnetic) signal and following certain laws. Dolіdzhennym tsikh zakonіv are engaged theory of communication, scho vinyl in the 1920s. Mathematical apparatus of the theory of communication - mathematical theory of communication, having developed the American doctrine of Claude Shannon

Claude Elwood Shannon (1916-2001), USA

Claude Shannon proposed a model for the process of transmission from technical channels to communication, represented by a diagram.

Technical system of transmission of information

Under the coding here, it becomes clear whether the transformation of information that goes out of the dzherel, in a form, is given for transmission by the channel of the link. Decoding - reverse transformation of the signal sequence.

The operation of such a scheme can be explained to a familiar process by telephone. Dzherelom information is a man, what to say. The coding device is a microphone of a telephone handset, for the help of some kind of sound wave (mova) are transformed into electric signals. Channel zvyazku є telephone on the line(Wire, switches of telephone hubs, through the yaki pass the signal). The decoding device is a telephone handset (earphone) of a person who hears - receiving information. Here the electric signal, which came, transforms into sound.

Today computer systems transfers - computer merezhі, pratsyyut for this very principle. Є coding process, which converts the binary computer code into physical signal of the type that is transmitted by the call channel. Decoding is used in the reverse conversion signal, which is transferred to the computer code. For example, when using different telephone lines computer networks The functions of coding and decoding are used as an attachment, which is called a modem.

Throughput capacity of the channel and the speed of transmission of information

For retailers technical systems the transfer of information must be brought to bear on two mutual orders: how to secure the best swedishness transmission of information and how to change the time of transmission. Claude Shannon was the first scientist who took up the task of solving these tasks and created a new science for that hour. theory of information.

K.Shannon determined the method of simulating the amount of information that is transmitted by the communication channels. Їm Bulo zaprovadzheno understand I will pass the building to the channel,as much as possible the speed of transmission of information. The speed is measured in bits per second (as well as kilobits per second, megabits per second).

Throughput capacity of the channel svyazku to fall from yogo technical implementation. For example, in computer chains, the following links are made:

telephone lines,

Electric cable tie,

Fiber optic cable link,

Radio communication.

Throughput building of telephone lines - tens, hundreds of Kbit/s; the capacity of the building of fiber-optic lines and line radio communication is reduced by tens and hundreds of Mbps.

Noise, outrageous noise

The term "noise" is used to name a different kind of transitions that create a signal that is transmitted and lead to the loss of information. Such a cross over us in front of blaming through technical reasons: the quality of the line link is filthy, the unprotection of one type of one different stream of information that is transmitted by one and the same channels. Sometimes, roaming by phone, we hear a noise, a crackling sound, which is important for the understanding of a spy, otherwise our rozmov is superimposed on the rozmov of other people.

Make noise until you waste the information that is being transmitted. In such moods, a necessary defense against noise.

We are going to stop technically, sobai zakhist kanalіv zvjazku vіd vplyu shumіv. For example, using a screened cable to replace a bare dart; zastosuvannya different kind of filters, scho vodokremlyuyut korisny signal vіd noise, that іn.

The bula was broken up by Claude Shannon coding theory What are the methods for dealing with noise. One of the important ideas of this theory is that the code that is transmitted over the line is responsible for superfluous. For the cost of which, the loss of some part of the information during transmission can be compensated. For example, as soon as you talk on the phone you are a bit nasty, then, repeating the word “dvichi” in your skin, you have more chances for those who understand you correctly.

It is not possible for Prote to work over the great world. Tse prizvede to zatrimok that pricey zv'yazku. Coding theory allows you to choose a code that will be optimal. With all the overworldness of the information that is being transmitted, it will be minimally possible, and the reliability of the received information will be maximum.

In today's digital communication systems, in order to fight against the waste of information at the time of transmission, the onset of reception is often blocked. Mustaches are divided into portions - packages. For the skin package is charged control sum(the sum of two digits), which is transmitted at once from the package. At the receiver, the control amount of the received package is re-calculated i, as it does not match with the original amount, transfer this package repeat. So let's do it, the docks are gone and the end of the control bag will not fall.

Looking at the transfer of information in propaedeutic and basic courses of computer science, we should discuss this topic from the position of a person as an owner of information. Building up to the end of information from the world is the most important reason for the mind. Organs that feel like people are the information channels of the human body, which creates a connection between people and the outer world. For this purpose, the information is subdivided into zorova, sound, scent, tactile, smakov. Obgruntuvannya of the fact that relish, scent and dotik carry people information, poking in the offensive: we remember the smells of familiar objects, the relish of known objects. And in our memory, the information is saved.

Follow the rozpovisti to learn what the world of creatures has informational role organs are a little breathtaking in the human face. An important informational function for creatures is the scent. The scent of service dogs is captured by the law enforcement agencies for the investigation of evildoers, the manifestation of drugs and others. Zorove that sound priynyattya creatures vіdrіznyaєtsya vіd human. For example, it seems that they seem to smell ultrasound, and the intestines swell at the darkness (from the look of a person).

At the borders of these scholars, one should point out specific applications for the transmission process, designate these applications for the dzherelo, receive information, and select transmission channels.

Under the hour of learning computer science in senior classes, learn about the basic provisions of the technical theory of communication: understanding coding, decoding, speed of transmission, capacity of the channel, noise, protection against noise. You can look at food at the borders of those " Technical data computer mesh”.